Discourses

There are three forms, know by the names Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy, and that those who give its institutions to a state have recourse to one or other of these three, according as it suits their purpose. There are altogether six forms of government, three of them utterly bad, the other three good in themselves but so readily corrupted that they too are apt to become hurtful. It is easy to pass imperceptibly from the one to the other, For a Monarchy readily becomes Tyranny, an Aristocracy an Oligarchy, while a Democracy tends to degenerate into Anarchy.

They who lay the foundations of a state and furnish it with laws must assume that all men are bad, and will always, when they have the free field, give loose to their evil inclinations and that if these for a while remain hidden, it is owing to some secret cause, which, from our having no experience at whom we speak as the father of all truth.

Wherefore it has been said that as poverty and hunger are needed to make men industrious, so laws are needed to make them good.

Where there are good soldiers, there must be good order, and generally speaking, good fortune.

That to preserve Liberty in a state there must exist the Right to accuse. How useful and necessary it is for republics to provide by their laws a channel by which the displeasure of the multitude against a single citizen may find a vent.

As the right to accuse is beneficial in a republic, so columny on the other hand is useless and hurtful.

And in truth the prince who seeks for worldly glory should desire to be the ruler of a corrupt city, not that, like Caeser he may destroy it, but that, like Romulus, he may restore it, since man cannot hope for, nor Heaven offer any better opportunity of fame. Let those therefore to whom Heaven has offered this opportunity remember that two courses lie open to them; one which will render them secure while they live and glorious when they die, another which exposes them to continual difficulties in life, and condemn them to external infamy after their death.

And, it will be plain to any one who carefully studies Roman History, how much religion helped in disciplining the army, in uniting people, in keeping good men good, and putting bad men to shame.

Since a kingdom without the fear of God must either fall to pieces, or must be maintained by the fear of some prince who supplies that influence not supplied by religion.

That a people accustomed to live under a prince, if by any accident it becomes free, can hardly preserve that freedom.

That a state in becoming free makes for itself bitter enemies but not warm friends. All become its bitter enemies who, drawing their support from the wealth of the tyrant, flourished under his government. For these men, when the causes which made them powerful are withdrawn, can no longer live contented, but are one and all impelled to attempt the restoration of the tyranny in hopes of regaining their former importance. A free government bestows its honors and rewards in accordance with certain fixed rules, and on considerations of merit, without which none is honored or rewarded.

That a corrupt People obtaining Freedom can hardly preserve it.

The laws and institutions established in a republic at its beginning, when men were good, are no longer suitable when they have become bad; but while the laws of a city are altered to suit its circumstances, its institutions rarely or never change; whence it results that the institution of new laws is of no avail, because the institutions remaining unchanged, corrupt them.

First, that we should never peril our whole fortunes on the success of only a part of our forces. Second, that in a well-governed state, merit should never be allowed to balance crime. And third, that those are never wise covenants which we cannot or should not expect to be observed.

Men, however, not knowing how to be wholly good or wholly bad, choose for themselves certain middle ways, which of all others are the most pernicious.

The cause given by Cornelius Tacitus when he says, that “men are readier to pay back injuries than benefits, since to require a benefit is felt to be a brethren, to return an injury a gain.”

Men know not how to be wholly good or wholly bad, it will never happen that after a victory captain will quit his army and convelt? himself modestly, nor yet he will choose to use hardy methods, and so, remaining undecided he will be crushed while he still waves and doubts.

Chapter XXVII Of the Mischief bred in Rome by the Agrarian Law; and how it is a great source of disorder in a Commonwealth to pass a Law opposed to ancient usage and with stringent retrospective Effect.

For nature has so ordered it that while they desire everything, it is impossible for them to have everything, and thus their desires being always in excess of their capacity to gratify them, they remain constantly dissatisfied and discontented.

And although it should be the object of every well-governed commonwealth to make the State rich and keep individual citizens poor it must be allowed that in the matter of this law the city of Rome was to blame.

We may also learn from this contest how much more men value wealth than honors; for in the matter of honours, the Roman nobles always gave way to the commons without any extraordinary resistance, but when it came to be a question of property, so stubborn were they in its defense, that the commons to effect their ends had to resort to those irregular methods which have been described.

Chapter XXXIX That often the same accidents are seen to befall different nations. Anyone comparing the present with the past will son perceive that in all cities and in al nations there prevail the same desires and passions as always have prevailed; it should be an easy matter for him who carefully examines past events, to apply such remedies as the ancients have used in like cases, or dinding none which have been used by them. that these lessons being neglected or not understood by the reader, or being unknown to rulers, it follows that the same disorders are common to all times.

The pernicious step of creating this tyranny in Rome was due to the same cases which commonly give rise to tyrannies in cities; namely the excessive love of the people for liberty, and the passionate eagerness of the nobles to govern. For when they cannot agree to pass some ? favorable to freedom, one fraction or the other sets itself to support one man, and a tyranny at once springs up.

King Fernando was ? to say, men often behave like certain of the smaller birds, which are so ? on the prey which nature indices them, that they discern not the eagle hovering overhead for their destruction.

For this is the common course of things, then in seeking to escape cause for fear, men come to give others cause to be afraid by inflicting on them those wrongs from which they strive to relieve themselves; as though the choice lay between injuring and being injured.

Chapter LV That Goverment is easily carried on in a City where the body of the people is not corrupted; and that a Princedom is impossible where Equality prevails, and a Republic where it does not.

But to found a commonwealth in a country suited for a kingdom, or a kingdom in a country suited to be a commonwealth, requires so rare a combination of intelligence and power, that though many engage in the other, few are found to succeed.

Let a commonwealth then, be constituted in the country where a great equality is found or has been made; and conversely, let princedom be constituted where great inequality prevails. Otherwise what is constituted will be discardent? in itself,and without stability.

The Rome became great by designing the cities which lay round about her, and by readily admitting strangers to the rights of Citizenship.

For as all out actions imitate nature, and it is neither natural, nor possible that a puny stern should carry a great branch, so a small republic cannot assume control over cities or countries stronger than herself; or doing so, will resemble the tree whose boughs being greater than its trunk, are supported with difficulty,and snapped by every gust of wind.

These methods, they continued to employ until they changed their system of warfare, which they aid dump the siege of Vais, when to enable them to carry on a prolonged war, they passed a law for the payment of their soldiers, whom up to that time they had not paid, nor needed to pay, because till then their wear had been of brief duration.

Necessity, as has often been said, is the parent of valour.

Chapter XIII That men rise from humble to high fortunes rather by Fraud than by Force.

An art always necessary for those who would mount to great heights from low beginnings; and which is the less to be condemned when, as in the case of the Romans, it is skillfully concealed.

Chapter XVV That Men often err in thinking they can subdue Pride by Humility.

“Res redacto est ad tiaries” equivelant to our expression of playing a lost stake.

“Came luxury more mortal than the sword, And settling down, avenged a vanquished world” Saeviour armis Luxuria accubuit victuinque ulcistitur orbem.

In corrupt republics, and especially in quiet times, either through jealousy or from other like causes, men of great ability are often obliged to stand aloft, it follows that measures not good in themselves are by a common error judged to be good, or are promoted by those who seek publick favour rather than the public duty.

For the commonwealth or prince who has rightly measured his strength, can hardly be brought so low as the Latins, who made war with the Romans when they should have made terms, and made terms when they should have made war, so mismanaged everything that the friendship and the enmity of Rome were alike fatal.

For the causes of division in a commonwealth are, for the most part, ease and tranquility, while the causes of union are fear and war.

Now, one of the tests whereby to gauge strength of any State, is to observe what terms it lives with its neighbours: for when it so carries itself that, to secure its friendship, its neighbours pay it tribute, this is a sure sign of strength, but when its neighbours, though of less reputation, receive payment from it, this is a clear proof of its weakness.

For where men are weak, Fortune shows herself strong; and because she changes, States and Governments change with her; and will continue to change, until some one arise,who, following reverently the example of the ancients, shall so control her,that she shall not have opportunity with every revolution of the sun to display anew the greatness of her power.

By their voluntary poverty, and by their invitation of the life of Christ, rekindled in the minds of men the dying flame of faithİ and by the efficacious rules which they established averted from our Churh that rule the ill lives of its prelates and heads must otherwise brought upon it. For living in poverty, and gaining great authority with the people by confessing them and preaching them, they got them to believe that it is evil to speak ill even of what is evil; and that it is good to be obedient to rules, who, if they do amiss, may be left to the Judgement of God. By which reaching these rulers are encouraged to behave as badly as they can, having no fear of punishments which they neither see nor credit. Nevertheless, it is this renewal which has maintained and still maintains, our religion.

But those who study the records of ancient times well understand, that after a change in the form of the government, whether it be from a commonwealth to a tyranny or from a tyranny to a commonwealth, those who are hostile to the new order of things must always be visited with signal punishment.

For it is far easier to be loved by good men then by bad, and do obey the laws than to seek to control them.

Golden sentence of Cornellius Taciticutus, which in he says that “the past should have our reverence, the present our obedience,and that we should wish for good princes, but put up with any.”

You can impart your plans only to such persons as you believe ready to face death on your behalf.

Men commonly deceive themselves in respect of the love which they imagine others bear them, nor can ever be sure of it until they have put it to proof.

Princes,then,have no worse enemy then conspiracy, for when a conspiracy is formed against them, it either carries them off, or discredits them: since, if it succeeds, they die, while, if it be discovered, and the conspirators be put to death themselves, it will always be believed that the whole affair has been trumped up by the prince that he might glut his greed to do cruelty with the goods and blood of those whom he has made away with. Let me not, however, forget to warn the prince or commonwealth against whom a conspiracy is directed, that on getting word of it, and before taking any steps to punish they endavour,as for as they can,to ascertain its character, end after carefully weighing the strength of the conspirator with their own, and finding it preponderate, never suffer their knowledge of the plot to appear until they are ready with a force to crush it.

The good and bad fortune of men depends on whether their methods of acting accord with the character of times.

So that the instruction to avoid a battle is nothing but tantamount to saying,” You shall engage when it pleases your enemy, and not when it suits yourself.”

“Necessity, last and mightiest weapon, give us the advantage.”

It is said by Lorenzo de Medici: “A prince’s acts his people imitate; For on their lord the eyes of all men wait.”

It is likewise shown that no army can be good unless it be thoroughly trained and exercised, and that this can only be the case with an army raised from your own subjects. For as a State is not and cannot always be at war, you must have the opportunity to train your army in times of peace.

How perilous a thing it is to put one’s self at the hand of changes whereby many are affected, how difficult to guide and bring them to perfection and when perfected monitor them.

In close vicinity to every good is found also an evil, so apt to grow up along with it that it is hardly possible to have the one without accepting the other. Unless fortune aids us to overcome this natural and common disadvantage, we never arrive at any excellence.

Soldiers! I would have you follow my deeds and not my words, and look to me for example rather than for commands; for with this right hand I have won for myself three consulships, and an unsurpassed renown.

“They have risen because peace is a heavier burthen for slaves than war for free men”.

Wherewith Romans confessed the right of citizenship on foreigners, there came to be so many new citizens in Rome, and possessed of so large a share of the suffrage, that the government itself began to alter, forsaking those courses which it was accustomed to follow, and growing strayed from the Men to whom it had before looked for guidance, which being observed by quintus Favius when consul, he caused all those new citizens to be classed in Four tribes, that being reduced within this narrow limit they might not have sit in their power to corrupt the Entire state.